Discovery of the Rosetta Stone

In 1799, during Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre-François Bouchard discovered a broken stone fragment at the town of Rashid (Rosetta). This fragment, known as the Rosetta Stone, was inscribed with a decree issued by a council of Egyptian priests in 196 B.C.E.

The decree was written in three scripts: hieroglyphs, Demotic (a simplified form of hieroglyphs), and ancient Greek. Scholars recognized that the Greek text could be translated, but the hieroglyphic and Demotic scripts remained a mystery.

Deciphering the Rosetta Stone

Two scholars, Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young, raced to decipher the code of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion, a French philologist, and Young, an English physicist, had a deep understanding of linguistics and code-breaking techniques.

Young’s breakthrough came when he realized that certain hieroglyphs enclosed in cartouches (oval frames) represented foreign names, which could be pronounced similarly in different languages. By comparing the hieroglyphic cartouches to the Greek names in the Rosetta Stone, Young was able to identify the phonetic values of some hieroglyphs.

Champollion furthered Young’s work by drawing on his knowledge of Coptic, a descendant of the ancient Egyptian language. He identified additional phonetic hieroglyphs by comparing them to their Coptic equivalents.

Finally, in 1822, Champollion had a eureka moment while studying a cartouche from the temple of Abu Simbel. He identified the hieroglyph for the sun (ra) and the hieroglyph for the sound “s.” This led him to decipher the name of the pharaoh Ramses, proving that hieroglyphs could represent Egyptian words and sounds.

The Rosetta Stone and the Study of Hieroglyphs

The decipherment of the Rosetta Stone revolutionized the study of ancient Egyptian history and culture. Hieroglyphs, once an enigmatic script, became accessible to scholars, revealing a wealth of information about the ancient Egyptian civilization.

The Rosetta Stone provided key insights into the development of writing systems and the relationship between language and symbols. It also helped scholars understand the religious beliefs, political systems, and social structures of ancient Egypt.

The Significance of the Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone remains a cultural icon, representing the power of collaboration and the human quest for knowledge. It is a testament to the ingenuity and determination of scholars who unlocked the secrets of a lost language and civilization.

The Rosetta Stone has inspired countless exhibitions, books, and documentaries, captivating audiences worldwide. It continues to serve as a symbol of the interconnectedness of human cultures and the importance of preserving our collective heritage.

Other Fragmentary Inscriptions

The Rosetta Stone is not the only surviving copy of the decree issued in 196 B.C.E. Over two dozen fragmentary inscriptions have been discovered in various temples throughout Egypt. These inscriptions have helped scholars to confirm and refine the decipherment of hieroglyphs.

The Rosetta Stone and the Bicentenary

Two hundred years after Champollion’s breakthrough, the Rosetta Stone remains a source of fascination and inspiration. Celebrations and exhibitions are planned worldwide to mark the bicentenary of its decipherment. In Egypt, there are calls for the British Museum to return the stone to its country of origin.

The Rosetta Stone’s legacy extends far beyond its physical presence. It stands as a symbol of human ingenuity, cultural understanding, and the enduring power of the written word.

Origins of the Term “Soccer”

The term “soccer” originated in England in the late 1800s as a shortened form of “Association Football.” This was done to differentiate it from other forms of football, such as Rugby Football. In America, the term “soccer” became the preferred way to distinguish it from Gridiron Football.

Interchangeable Use in England

For many years, both “soccer” and “football” were used interchangeably in England. However, after World War II, “soccer” became more common. British fans gravitated towards the term “football” to distinguish themselves from Americans, who had begun to adopt the term “soccer.”

Backlash in England

As soccer gained popularity in the United States in the 1980s, there was a backlash in England. Many British fans felt that the term “soccer” had become too Americanized, and they stopped using it.

Current Usage

Today, the term “soccer” is still commonly used in the United States, while “football” is the preferred term in most other countries. However, there is no official distinction between the two terms, and they can be used interchangeably.

The Popularity of Soccer in America

Soccer has become increasingly popular in the United States in recent decades, particularly among big-city literati. This is due in part to the growing number of immigrants from countries where soccer is the most popular sport. Additionally, the success of the US Women’s National Team and the hosting of major soccer tournaments in the United States have helped to fuel the sport’s growth.

Terminology Differences Between British and American Football

In addition to the different terms used for the sport itself, there are also some differences in terminology between British and American football. For example, the field is called a “pitch” in British football and a “field” in American football. The goalposts are called “nets” in British football and “goalposts” in American football. And the players are called “footballers” in British football and “players” in American football.

Conclusion

The terms “soccer” and “football” have a long and intertwined history. While there is no official distinction between the two terms, they are typically used in different contexts. In the United States, “soccer” is the more common term, while “football” is the preferred term in most other countries.

The Role of Computers in Crossword Design

Crossword puzzles have been a beloved pastime for over a century, and they continue to be primarily crafted by human hands. While computers have made significant advancements in various fields, they still fall short when it comes to generating high-quality crosswords.

Machines can assist in filling in the grids with words, but they struggle to create puzzles that are both coherent and engaging for human solvers. Early attempts at computer-aided crossword design resulted in grids filled with obscure and unfamiliar words, a phenomenon known as “crosswordese.”

The Challenge of Crosswordese

Crosswordese refers to the use of uncommon and often nonsensical words in crosswords. Examples include INEE, NENE, ANOA, and ATTU. While these words may be acceptable in a crossword puzzle, they can make the solving experience frustrating and inaccessible to most people.

The Human Factor

Crossword constructors rely on their vast knowledge of language, culture, and current events to create puzzles that are both challenging and enjoyable. They carefully select theme words and black squares to create a grid that is both aesthetically pleasing and intellectually stimulating.

The Rise of Indie Crossword Puzzles

In recent years, there has been a growing movement of independent crossword puzzle makers who prioritize creativity and originality over mass appeal. These indie puzzles often feature more obscure themes, clever wordplay, and a rejection of traditional crosswordese.

The Future of Crossword Puzzles

Despite the advancements in technology, it is unlikely that computers will completely replace humans in the crossword puzzle industry. While computers can assist in certain aspects of puzzle creation, the human touch remains essential for crafting puzzles that are both engaging and accessible.

The Importance of Word Databases

Crossword constructors use vast word databases to find potential words for their puzzles. These databases are ranked based on the frequency and desirability of each word, ensuring that the puzzles contain a mix of common and uncommon words.

The Role of Theme Words and Black Squares

Theme words are longer answers that often contain puns or wordplay. Black squares are used to create the grid pattern and to separate different sections of the puzzle. Constructors carefully arrange these elements to create a challenging and visually appealing grid.

The Challenge of Esoteric Words

While indie crossword puzzles may embrace obscure themes and vocabulary, they still strive to maintain a balance between challenge and accessibility. Esoteric words are used sparingly and are typically accompanied by helpful clues to guide solvers.

The Legacy of Crossword Giants

Legendary cruciverbalists like Frank Longo have amassed enormous databases of potential crossword additions, ensuring that their puzzles are filled with a rich variety of words. Despite the rise of indie puzzles, legacy puzzles continue to hold a strong following due to their consistent quality and broad appeal.

Origin and Purpose

Hieroglyphs, the ancient writing system of Egypt, emerged around the same time as writing in Mesopotamia. Both systems arose from the need to keep track of surpluses and manage increasingly complex societies. In Egypt, the first evidence of hieroglyphs appears on labels attached to jars.

Characteristics and Significance

Hieroglyphs are not merely decorative symbols; they are a sophisticated means of communication. Their elegant and visually appealing nature is evident in their depictions of animals, birds, and human figures. However, their primary purpose was to convey information, as seen in the elaborate reliefs and statues that tell specific stories and express religious beliefs.

Deciphering Hieroglyphs

The Rosetta Stone played a pivotal role in deciphering hieroglyphs. This trilingual inscription, containing Greek, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and demotic script, provided a key to understanding the ancient Egyptian language. Scholars realized that hieroglyphs represented sounds rather than just ideas or objects.

Learning Hieroglyphs

Mastering hieroglyphs requires a structured approach. In graduate school, students typically study Middle Egyptian, the classic form of the language, and gradually progress to different phases. While it can take several years to gain proficiency, the effort is well worth it for those interested in unlocking the secrets of ancient Egypt.

Colors and Pigments

The vibrant colors used in hieroglyphs were derived from natural minerals. Ochre provided shades of orange and red, while malachite produced green. Artists mixed these pigments with other materials to create various hues and enable them to paint on different surfaces.

Scribes and Scribal Statues

Scribes played a crucial role in ancient Egyptian society, serving as skilled writers and record-keepers. Scribal statues, often depicting individuals seated with papyrus scrolls, symbolized the importance of literacy and the protection of knowledge. One particularly striking statue features a scribe with a baboon perched on his head, representing the patronage of Thoth, the god of writing.

Royal Literacy

Contrary to popular belief, it is likely that kings and queens in ancient Egypt possessed literacy skills. Evidence suggests that King Tutankhamun had his own writing materials buried with him, and scribal equipment has been found in royal tombs. This indicates that the royal family received education in reading and writing.

Surprising Facts

• Hieroglyphs are not only found on monuments but also on everyday objects like pottery and jewelry.

• The Rosetta Stone revealed that hieroglyphs could express multiple sounds, including consonants and vowels.

• Some hieroglyphs represent abstract concepts, such as emotions and actions.

• Ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs to write religious texts, historical accounts, and even love poems.

• The study of hieroglyphs continues to shed light on the fascinating culture and history of ancient Egypt, providing valuable insights into the lives of its people.

Discovery Overturns Previous Hypothesis

Archaeologists have unearthed a 3,500-year-old pottery shard in Israel, offering new insights into the evolution of the alphabet. The inscription on the shard, the oldest writing ever recorded in the country, suggests that a standardized script arrived in Canaan earlier than previously thought.

The Canaanite Script: A Missing Link

The script on the pottery shard represents a “missing link” connecting alphabetic inscriptions found in Egypt and Sinai with later writing from Canaan. The letters bear a striking resemblance to Egyptian hieroglyphs, indicating that the Canaanite alphabet evolved from these ancient symbols.

Challenging the Egyptian Influence Theory

The discovery challenges the long-held hypothesis that the alphabet was introduced to Canaan during the Egyptian empire’s rule. The inscription predates the Egyptian domination, suggesting that the alphabet was already in use in Canaan by the 15th century B.C.

Tel Lachish: A Thriving Canaanite City

The pottery shard was found at Tel Lachish, a site that was home to a large Canaanite city. The Canaanites established a fortified power center there around 2000 B.C., and the city flourished for centuries.

Inscription Details and Interpretation

The inscription on the pottery shard consists of six letters arranged on two lines. Epigraphists believe that the first three letters may spell out the word “ebed,” meaning “slave” or “servant.” The second line could read “nophet,” meaning “nectar” or “honey.”

Name Conventions and Religious Significance

It is likely that the inscription formed part of a person’s name. At the time, it was common to combine “servant” with the name of a local god to symbolize devotion.

Evolution of the Canaanite Alphabet

Over time, Canaanite writing split into two branches: the alphabet used by the ancient Israelites to write the Hebrew Bible and a version used by the Phoenicians.

Spread of the Alphabet

After the collapse of the major Mediterranean empires around 1200 B.C., the alphabet spread from Canaan to neighboring regions. Variations of the alphabet were used in Turkey, Spain, and eventually gave rise to the Latin alphabet used in written English today.

Hieroglyphic Origins of Alphabets

“All alphabets have evolved from hieroglyphs,” explains Felix Höflmayer, lead author of the study. “Now we know that the alphabet was not brought to the Levant by the Egyptian rule. It was much earlier and under different social circumstances.”

Ongoing Research and Uncertainties

While the discovery provides valuable insights, it also raises new questions. Researchers are still working to determine the exact meaning of the inscription and whether it was meant to be read from left to right or right to left. Dating techniques have also yielded some uncertainties, as the barley grains found alongside the shard may not have been harvested at the same time the vessel was created.

Significance of the Discovery

The pottery shard from Tel Lachish is a significant archaeological discovery that sheds light on the origins and development of the alphabet, a fundamental tool that has shaped human communication and knowledge for centuries.

Early Life and Education

Peter Mark Roget was born in 1779, the son of a Swiss watchmaker who had settled in England. Roget showed an early aptitude for language and science, and he went on to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh. After graduating, he spent several years working as a physician and inventor, but his true passion lay in words.

Grand Tour and Napoleonic Captivity

In 1802, Roget embarked on a Grand Tour of Europe, a rite of passage for wealthy young Englishmen. He was accompanied by two teenage boys, Burton and Nathaniel Philips, whose father had hired Roget as their tutor.

The trio spent several months in Paris, where they witnessed the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. They were fascinated by the great general, but their stay was cut short when Britain and France went to war in 1803. Napoleon issued a decree that all British citizens in French territory over the age of 18 be held as prisoners of war.

Roget and the Philips boys were trapped in Geneva, which Napoleon had annexed. Roget tried to flee, but he was caught and ordered to surrender. Desperate to escape captivity, Roget petitioned officials for exemptions as a medical doctor and a tutor, but his pleas were denied.

Escape to Neuchâtel

With the Philips boys too young to be subject to Napoleon’s edict, Roget sent them over the border to the Swiss Confederacy. He then resorted to a final, desperate course of action: changing his citizenship.

Roget’s father had been a Genevese citizen, and Roget managed to track down his baptismal certificate. With this proof of his Genevese heritage, Roget was able to obtain a passport and rejoin the Philips boys in Neuchâtel.

Return to England and Scientific Pursuits

Roget and the boys eventually made their way back to England, where Roget resumed his career as a physician and inventor. He also published extensively on scientific topics, including a paper on a logarithmic slide rule he had invented.

In 1814, Roget was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. His most significant scientific work was an exhaustive survey of physiology in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, which was published in the Bridgewater Treatises series.

The Creation of the Thesaurus

After retiring from medicine and science in 1849, Roget turned his attention to words. He had always been fascinated by language, and he had compiled a list of some 15,000 words during his youth.

Over the next three years, Roget assembled his words into six overarching categories, including “matter,” “intellect,” and “volition.” He organized and classified them based on their meanings and relationships, creating a comprehensive guide to human knowledge.

Publication and Legacy

Roget’s thesaurus was published in 1853, and it quickly became a bestseller. It was the first thesaurus to offer the depth and scope of Roget’s work, and it revolutionized the way people wrote and spoke.

Roget oversaw more than two dozen additional editions and printings of his thesaurus over the next 16 years. He continued to work on an expanded edition until his death in 1869, at the age of 90.

Peter Mark Roget’s thesaurus remains one of the most important reference books in the English language. It is a testament to his genius and his lifelong passion for words.

Unveiling the Origins of British and Irish Surnames

Delving into the rich tapestry of history, researchers at the University of the West of England in Bristol have embarked on a remarkable journey to uncover the origins of over 45,000 surnames common to Great Britain and Ireland. Their meticulous work has culminated in the creation of a comprehensive resource: The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland.

A Treasure Trove of Surnames

The dictionary encompasses a vast array of surnames, each with its own unique story to tell. From the straightforward origins of occupational names like Smith or Shepherd to the enigmatic nature of others, such as Campbell or Hislop, this tome unravels the hidden meanings behind these linguistic relics.

Tracing the Roots of Surnames

To trace the intricate lineage of these surnames, researchers delved into a wealth of historical sources dating back to the 11th century. Medieval and modern census documents, church registers, and tax records provided invaluable insights into the evolution of spelling and usage over the centuries.

The Influence of Geography and Occupations

Many surnames bear witness to the influence of geography and occupations. Names like Leicester or Taylor hint at the ancestral home or profession of their bearers. However, some surnames defy easy categorization, posing intriguing puzzles for researchers.

Campbell: A Case Study

The surname Campbell serves as an intriguing example of the challenges and rewards of surname research. Traditionally believed to stem from the Latin phrase “de campo bello” (meaning “of the beautiful field”), new evidence suggests a more likely origin in the Gaelic phrase for “crooked mouth.”

Hislop: A Scottish Enigma

The name Hislop, once thought to be linked to an unknown location in northern England, has been traced to its true Scottish roots. Its origins lie in the Middle English words “hasel” (hazel) and “hop” (a deep enclosed valley), painting a vivid picture of the landscape from which it emerged.

The Breakdown of Surnames

The researchers’ analysis revealed a fascinating breakdown of the surnames in the dictionary. A substantial 90% were found to be native to Britain and Ireland, with place names contributing 50% and relationships accounting for 23%. Surprisingly, 19% originated from nicknames, while occupations gave rise to 8%.

The Rise of Non-Native Surnames

While traditional British and Irish surnames continue to dominate the landscape, the study also highlights the growing presence of non-native names. The Chinese surname Li, for instance, has seen a surge in usage, while the Indian surname Patel has also gained significant ground.

The Importance of Surname Research

The study underscores the enduring fascination with the origins of our surnames. As Samuel Lambshead, of the Arts and Humanities Research Council, notes, “Knowledge about the origins of family names is so important in helping to understand our own stories and mapping out those of our ancestors.”

Surnames: A Window into the Past

Surnames serve as a living testament to our ancestors’ lives, their occupations, their geographic origins, and even their physical characteristics. The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland provides an invaluable resource for anyone seeking to delve into the rich tapestry of their own family history.

The Rise of Gamer Lingo in Chinese Speech

Online gaming’s immense popularity in China has led to a fascinating linguistic phenomenon: the integration of gamer lingo into everyday speech. Terms like “PK” (Player Kill), “Live-action Counter-Strike,” and “Full Blood Resurrection” have become commonplace, even among non-gamers.

Examples of Gaming Terms in Chinese Usage

• “PK” is now used in singing competitions to refer to defeating an opponent.
• “Live-action Counter-Strike” has been adopted to promote paintball and laser-tag games.
• “Full Blood Resurrection,” originally denoting a restored health bar in video games, was recently used in newspapers to describe the reinflation of a giant rubber duck in Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbor.

Factors Contributing to the Trend

The massive Chinese video game market, with its vast number of gamers, has played a significant role in this linguistic shift. The popularity of online multiplayer games like World of Warcraft and DOTA 2 has further accelerated the adoption of gamer lingo.

Another factor is the government’s recent lifting of the ban on consoles like Xbox and PlayStation. This has increased the accessibility of video games and exposed a wider audience to gaming terminology.

The Impact of Gaming on Chinese Culture

The influence of gaming on Chinese culture extends beyond language. Phrases like “PK” have become metaphors for competition in various contexts, such as singing competitions. Gaming terms have also been used to describe real-world events, as seen in the example of “Full Blood Resurrection” and the reinflated rubber duck.

The Dark Side of Online Gaming in China

China’s embrace of online gaming has also brought challenges. Internet and gaming addiction is a growing concern, with an estimated 24 million addicts in the country.

In some cases, the government has profited from the virtual economies within online multiplayer games by forcing prisoners to become “gold farmers.” These prisoners spend long hours collecting virtual gold through monotonous in-game tasks, which is then sold to gamers worldwide for real money.

Conclusion

The integration of gaming terms into Chinese vernacular reflects the profound impact of online gaming on Chinese society. While this linguistic phenomenon has its playful and creative aspects, it also highlights the potential social and economic challenges associated with excessive gaming.

The Cambridge Debate

In 1946, two renowned philosophers, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper, engaged in a heated debate at Cambridge University. The debate, which lasted only ten minutes, has captivated philosophers ever since.

The Waving Poker

During the debate, Wittgenstein reportedly brandished an iron poker at Popper. The exact circumstances of this incident are disputed, but it has become a symbol of the clash between Wittgenstein’s and Popper’s ideas.

The Puzzle of Philosophy

Wittgenstein argued that philosophy was not concerned with solving real problems, but rather with clarifying the language we use to talk about the world. He believed that many philosophical problems arise from misunderstandings about language.

Popper, on the other hand, believed that philosophy could address important social and political issues. He saw logic as a tool for uncovering the truth and exposing falsehoods.

The Limits of Language

Wittgenstein believed that formal languages, such as logic and science, could not fully capture the complexities of the world. He argued that these languages often lead us astray by imposing artificial rules and distinctions on reality.

Popper, however, placed great faith in the power of logic. He believed that by carefully constructing arguments, we could arrive at objective truths.

Artificial Intelligence and the Bewitchment of Intelligence

Wittgenstein’s skepticism about the power of language has had a profound impact on the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Many AI researchers have struggled to create computers that can truly understand and reason like humans.

Wittgenstein argued that the pursuit of AI is a “bewitchment of intelligence” by language. He believed that computers would never be able to fully grasp the complexities of human language and thought.

Cloning and Imponderables

Wittgenstein’s ideas have also been applied to the ethical and philosophical implications of cloning. Cloning raises profound questions about identity, personhood, and the nature of human existence.

Wittgenstein’s skepticism reminds us that we should be cautious about making claims about things we do not fully understand. Cloning, like many other complex issues, involves imponderables that defy easy answers.

The Ghost of Skepticism

Wittgenstein’s ghost continues to haunt philosophers and scientists alike. His skeptical approach challenges us to question our assumptions and to be mindful of the limitations of our knowledge.

The iron poker that Wittgenstein waved at Popper has become a symbol of this philosophical skepticism. It reminds us that the pursuit of truth is often fraught with uncertainty and that we should never be too quick to claim that we have all the answers.

Key Points

• Wittgenstein argued that philosophy should focus on clarifying language rather than solving real problems.
• Popper believed that logic could be used to address important social and political issues.
• Wittgenstein was skeptical about the ability of formal languages to fully capture the complexities of the world.
• AI researchers have struggled to create computers that can truly understand and reason like humans.
• Wittgenstein’s ideas have implications for the ethical and philosophical considerations surrounding cloning.
• Wittgenstein’s ghost represents a skeptical approach that challenges us to question our assumptions and be mindful of the limits of our knowledge.

Bonhams Auction to Offer $1 Million Worth of Rare Lexicography

On December 4, bibliophiles and collectors will have the opportunity to bid on a remarkable collection of rare dictionaries at Bonhams in New York City. The auction, valued at close to $1 million, features over 200 lots from the collection of the late Thomas Malin Rodgers, Jr.

Gems of Lexicography

The auction offerings include a diverse array of linguistic treasures, including:

• Blackguardiana: or, A Dictionary of Rogues, Bawds, Pimps, Whores, Pickpockets, Shoplifters… (circa 1793): A fascinating glimpse into the underworld of 18th-century London.
• Sixteenth-century B.C. Cuneiform Tablet: An ancient artifact bearing the earliest known form of written language.
• Late Thirteenth-century Italian Manuscript of Papias the Grammarian’s Dictionary: The only known copy of this seminal work, which predates Samuel Johnson’s dictionary by centuries.

A Websterian Manuscript

No dictionary auction would be complete without a nod to the father of American lexicography, Noah Webster. The offerings include a handwritten manuscript page from Webster’s first edition American Dictionary (1828), featuring definitions for various “B” words.

Provenance and Significance

The dictionaries in this auction come from the esteemed collection of Thomas Malin Rodgers, Jr., a renowned bibliophile and collector. His discerning eye for rare and important works has resulted in an auction that promises to attract collectors from around the world.

The Magic of Dictionaries

Dictionaries are more than mere reference books; they are portals into the evolution of language, culture, and society. They preserve the words and phrases that shape our understanding of the world around us. The upcoming auction at Bonhams offers a unique opportunity to acquire a piece of this rich linguistic heritage.

Unveiling Linguistic Treasures

Each dictionary in the auction tells a unique story. The cuneiform tablet whispers tales of ancient civilizations, while the Blackguardiana dictionary exposes the hidden corners of a bygone era. The manuscript of Papias the Grammarian’s dictionary showcases the origins of modern lexicography. And the Webster manuscript page provides a glimpse into the mind of the man who shaped the American vocabulary.

A Collector’s Dream

For collectors, this auction is a dream come true. The rare and valuable dictionaries on offer provide an opportunity to acquire pieces that will enhance any collection. Whether you are a seasoned bibliophile or a budding enthusiast, the Bonhams auction is sure to offer something to ignite your passion for the written word.

Preserving Linguistic Legacy

The auction of these rare dictionaries not only offers collectors a chance to acquire unique pieces but also serves as a reminder of the importance of preserving our linguistic heritage. Dictionaries are the guardians of our language, and they deserve to be cherished and passed down to future generations.